Edited by John Twidell and Gaetano Gaudiosi
Publication date: April 2009 • ISBN 978-0906522-639 • xii +
358pp • £89
This is the most authoritative single volume on offshore wind power yet published. Distinguished experts, mainly from Europe’s leading universities, have contributed a collection of peer reviewed papers on the interfaces between wind power technology and marine engineering. The range of issues covered by the book include: wind as a resource; wind power generation; connection to the grid; the marine environment and engineering issues particular to it.
This book is essential for academic departments of mechanical engineering/energy engineering/ renewable energy. Offshore wind power generation will be the driver of the offshore industry for the foreseeable future: all organisations involved in offshore engineering should have this book.
Preface
John Twidell and Gaetano Gaudiosi
Ch 1 Offshore wind power: A review of progress
Poul Erik Morthorst, Jørgen Lemming and Niels-Erik Clausen
1. Introduction 2. Development and investment costs of offshore wind power
3. The cost of energy generated by offshore wind power 4. Offshore Windfarms
under Construction and in planning stage
5. Future technological development 6. Scenarios for the future offshore development
of wind power 7. Long-term cost perspectives for offshore turbines 8. New
offshore concepts 9. Conclusions
Ch 2 Basics of wind turbines
John Twidell
1. Introduction 2. Wind power growth 3. How wind turbines function 4. Offshore
or on land? 5. Environmental impact
Ch 3 Wind & waves in the Mediterranean Sea
Luigi Cavaleri and Corrado Ratto
1. The meteo-oceanographic characteristics of the Mediterranean Sea 2. The
sources of wind and wave data in the Mediterranean Sea 3. Combining the different
data into a consistent data set 4. Results
Ch 4 Climatology
Rebecca Barthelmie, S.C. Pryor and S.T. Frandsen
1. Introduction 2. Resource estimation 3. From resource to wind energy: impacts
of wakes 4. Windfarm power output at short time scales: is offshore different?
5. Summary 6. Acknowledgements 7. References
Ch 5 Electrical aspects of wind turbines
Zhe Chen and Frede Blaabjerg
I. Introduction 2. Turbine power control 3. Generators for wind turbines 4.
Modern power electronics and converter systems 5. Electrical power conversion
systems of wind turbines 6. Control of wind turbines 7. Network topologies
of windfarms 8. Integration of wind turbines into power systems 9. Improvement
of wind turbine performance in power systems 10. Conclusion
Ch 6 Windfarm power connection
Thomas Ackermann
1. Introduction 2. The offshore collector system 3. Offshore substations 4.
Transmission to shore 5. Reliability assessment 6. Economic evaluation of
the transmission system 7. Conclusions
Ch 7 Grid Integration
Carlo Degli Esposti
1. Introduction 2. Regulation of renewable energy 3. Support schemes for electricity
production 4. Integrating rese into the electricity market 5. System costs
6. Technical integration of renewables
Ch 8 Turbine dynamics and fatigue
Jan Van der Temple
1. Introduction 2. General terminology 3. Stochastic random processes 4. Waves
and currents 5. Wind 6. The turbine 7. Dynamics of offshore wind turbines
8. Basic fatigue considerations
9. Foundations
Ch 9 Offshore floating turbines
Andrew Henderson
1. Introduction 2. History 3. Benefits of deepwater windfarms 4. Design drivers
for concept design 5. Candidate concepts 6. Conclusion and final challenges
Ch 10 Access to windfarms
Goran Dalen and Mikael Jakobdsson
1. Introduction 2. Requirements for good access 3. Components of an access
system 4. Experience and systems analysis 5. Further technology 6. Conclusion
Ch 11 Standards and Certification
Axel Andreä, Kimon Argyriadis, Peter Dalhoff, Christian Nath and Silke
Schwartz
1. Introduction 2. Standards 3. Certification of wind turbines and windfarms
4. Risk evaluation 5. Summary and conclusions 6. References
Ch 12 Foundation design in deep waters
Franco Cesari
1. Introduction 2. Structural Solutions 3. Substructure design 4. Construction
and transportation 5. Installation and dismantling 6. Weight and cost evaluation
7. Concluding remarks 8. References
Ch 13 Turbine materials
Lorenzo Battisti and Alessandra Brighenti
1. Introduction 2. Rotor component materials 3. Nacelle component materials
4. Supporting structure materials 5. Cold climate issues 6. Offshore wind
turbines materials selection process 7. Conclusions
Editors
John Twidell works independently as an academic consultant and writer
in renewable energy and sustainability, and as Director of the AMSET Centre
Ltd. He previously held the Chair in Renewable Energy at De Montfort University
and was Director of the Energy Studies Unit of Strathclyde University. He
has also held appointments at Universities in Africa and the South Pacific.
He has served on the Boards of the British Wind Energy Association and the
UK Solar Energy Society, on committees of the Institute of Physics and as
an adviser to the UK Parliamentary Select Committee on Energy. Practical experience
in wind power has included management of a 3 MW (60 m) wind turbine and other
smaller wind turbines on Orkney, northern Scotland. He is a Board member of
Westmill Windfarm Co-operative. Presently, he is Editor Emeritus of the academic
journal ‘Wind Engineering’, having been General Editor from 1998
to 2007. He is a visiting lecturer at the Environmental Change Institute,
University of Oxford (MSc in Environmental Change, Energy Module), and the
School of Aeronautics and Engineering, City University, London (MSc in Energy,
Environment, Economics and Technology). His co-authored textbook with A.D.
Weir, ‘Renewable Energy Resources’ (second edition 2006, published
by Taylor Francis) sells worldwide, mainly on postgraduate courses. He has
written ~ 100 published papers on renewable and sustainable energy, and chapters
in 9 other books.
Gaetano Gaudiosi graduated in Naval Engineering at Naples University in 1959, and now works independently as a consultant on offshore and onshore wind energy and other marine renewable energies. From its foundation in 2006, he has been president of the not-for-profit association OWEMES, emphasising the Mediterranean and Southern European seas. He is a Board member of ATENA (Associazione di Tecnica Navale) Rome Section and ANIV (Association Nazionale Ingegneria del Vento, 2001-2007). Previously he was an officer in the wind energy programs of ENEA (Project Manager 1980-1987 for MEDIT 300 KW and GAMMA 1.5 MW wind turbine; senior consultant and E.C. Italian project leader 1990-2001), Italian Member in the IEA Wind R& D Implement Agreement 1984-1990) and European Commission Expert for the evaluation of wind and ocean energy project proposals. From 1961 to 1980, he worked in nuclear energy, with experience in testing thermal critical phenomena in the reactor core (BWR and PWR) in Italy, USA and Sweden. From 1984, he has chaired the triennial European Seminar OWEMES in Italy (Rome 1994; La Maddalena 1997; Siracusa 2000; Napoli 2003; Civitavecchia 2006). He is author of papers on nuclear energy and wind energy, with particular attention to the offshore wind power applications presented in international conferences since 1992. He co-edited a special issue of the journal ‘Wind Engineering’, reviewing offshore wind energy. Teaching activity in Wind Energy has been carried out for many years in Italy and other countries, recently including the e-learning ENEA-UNESCO course on offshore wind energy.
Authors
Chapter 1. Poul Erik Morthorst, Jørgen Lemming and Niels-Erik Clausen,
Poul Erik Morthorst is a Professor at Risø National Laboratory for
Sustainable Energy, the Technical University of Denmark. He has worked in
the Department for Systems Analyses at Risø for more than 30 years.
His main activities cover the assessment of the economics of renewable energy
technologies; especially wind power, evaluation of policy instruments for
regulating energy and environment and development of long-term scenarios for
energy, technology and environmental systems. He has participated in a large
number of projects within these fields and has extensive experience in international
collaboration. He has taken part in several national and international committees.
He is member of the board of the Danish TSO, Energinet.dk, and appointed to
the Danish Research Councils on Sustainable Energy and Environment and on
Transport. Recently he was appointed member of the Danish Commission on Climate
Change set up by the Danish Government. The main task of this commission is
to analyse national and international proposals of how to reduce significantly
emissions of greenhouse gases.
Jørgen Lemming is Chief Consultant at Risø National Laboratory
for Sustainable Energy, the Technical University of Denmark. Dr Lemming joined
the Department for Wind Energy at Risø in 2005, after many years in
the Danish Energy Authority as an expert on wind power. He has extensive experience
in national and international collaboration within the wind energy field and
is much involved in the IEA annexes on wind energy.
Niels-Erik Clausen is Senior Adviser at Risø National Laboratory for
Sustainable Energy, the Technical University of Denmark. Dr. Clausen joined
Risø DTU in 2000, where he has worked with research as well as consultancy
for private and institutional clients within application of wind energy. Research
areas include Climate Change and renewable energy potential; design of wind
turbines in areas with tropical cyclones; development of wind energy projects;
environmental impact assessment of wind power projects. Presently he is responsible
for a course on planning and development of windfarms at DTU’s MSc degree
programme in wind energy.
Chapter 2. John Twidell
see above.
Chapter 3 Luigi Cavaleri
Luigi Cavaleri received his Degree of Mechanical Engineer from the University
of Padua, Italy, in 1965 and his Master of Aeronautics from the California
Institute of Technology, Cal, USA, in 1969. Since then he worked for the Institute
of Marine Science, CNR, In Venice Italy, firstly in 1969 as a researcher,
then in 1992 as Director of Research, and finally in 2006 Director. Presently
retired, but continuing as a Senior Scientist at the same institute. His main
professional interest have always been wind waves, with connected activities
in wind modelling and air-sea interaction processes. Author of almost 100
refereed papers and 3 books.
Chapter 4 Rebecca Barthelmie
Rebecca Barthelmie holds the Ewart Farvis Chair of Energy System at the University
of Edinburgh and Professor of Atmospheric Science and Sustainability at Indiana
University. Prior to this, she worked as a consultant and researcher in offshore
wind energy at Risø National Laboratory, Denmark. She is a workpackage
leader in two European Union funded projects; ’Flow’ in UPwind and
’Wakes’ in POWWOW. She is author/co-author of more than 80 international
journal articles and more than 200 conference papers. She is an elected member
of the European Union Technology Platform on Wind Energy and an editor of
the journal Wind Energy.
Chapter 5 Zhe Chen and Frede Blaabjerg
Zhe Chen received the B.Eng. and M.Sc. degrees from Northeast China Institute
of Electric Power Engineering, Jilin City, China, and the Ph.D. degree from
University of Durham, U.K. He was a Lecturer and then a Senior Lecturer with
De Montfort University, U.K. In 2002, he became a Research Professor and is
now a Professor with the Institute of Energy Technology, Aalborg University,
Denmark, where he is the coordinator of the Wind Power System Research program.
His background areas are power systems, power electronics and electric machines;
and his main current research areas are wind energy and modern power systems.
He has more than 170 publications in his technical field. He is an Associate
Editor (Renewable Energy) of the IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, a
Member of the Institution of Engineering and Technology (London, U.K.), and
a Chartered Engineer in the U.K
Frede Blaabjerg received the M.Sc.EE. from Aalborg University, Denmark in
1987, and the PhD. degree from the Institute of Energy Technology, Aalborg
University, in 1995. He was employed at ABB-Scandia, Randers, from 1987-1988.
During 1988-1992 he was a PhD. student at Aalborg University. There he became
an Assistant Professor in 1992, in 1996 Associate Professor and in 1998 Full
Professor in power electronics and drives. He research expertise is especially
in power electronics, static power converters, ac drives, switched reluctance
drives, modelling, characterization of power semiconductor devices and simulation,
wind turbines and green power inverter. He is the author or co-author of more
than 300 publications in his research fields, including the book ‘Control
in Power Electronics’ (series editors. M.P. Kazmierkowski, R. Krishnan,
F. Blaabjerg) 2002, Academic Press.
Chapter 6 Thomas Ackermann.
Thomas Ackermann has the degree of a Diplom Wirtschaftsingenieur (M.Sc. in
Mechanical Engineering combined with an MBA) from the Technical University
Berlin/ Germany, an M.Sc. in Physics from Dunedin University/ New Zealand
and a Ph.D. from the Royal University of Technology in Stockholm/ Sweden.
He is the editor of the book “Wind Power in Power Systems”. In addition
to wind power, his main interests are related to the concept of distributed
power generation and the impact of market regulations on the development of
distributed generation in deregulated markets. He has worked in the wind energy
industry in Germany, Sweden, China, USA, New Zealand, Australia and India.
He is CEO of ‘energynautics’, a research and consulting company
in the area of sustainable energy supply and lecturer at the Royal University
of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden.
Chapter 7 Carlo Degli Esposti
Carlo Degli Esposti received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering in
1999 from the University of Bologna. He is presently a Project Manager and
Technical & Economical Adviser for ETSO, the European Transmission Systems
Organisation.
Chapter 8, Jan van der Tempel
Jan van der Tempel received his MSc in Civil Engineering, section Offshore,
in 2000 at the Delft University of Technology. Worked at Royal Boskalis Westminster
after graduating, focusing on installation methods for Horns Rev and sub-sea
cable installation and protection. Went back to DUT for a PhD on design of
support structures for offshore wind turbines, defining a frequency domain
fatigue calculation method (April 2006). He designed the Ampelmann, a system
for safe access to offshore structures, even in high wave conditions. Currently
working as project manager and assistant professor at the DUT teaching offshore
wind energy courses and CEO of the spin-out Ampelmann Company.
Chapter 9 Andrew Henderson
Andrew Henderson is an Offshore Wind Engineer at Garrad Hassan, responsible
for Offshore Wind Technical Due Diligence. Previously Andrew worked for Spanish
offshore wind farm developers, leading technical development in shallow and
deep waters. He held the position of Assistant Professor in Offshore Wind
Energy at the Technical University of Delft, where he was involved in major
European and Dutch research projects including “Design Methods for Offshore
Wind Turbines at Exposed Sites” and the “CA-Offshore Wind Energy”
information dissemination project. As a Research Fellow at the University
College of London, he undertook the research project on “The Development
of Research Tools for Offshore Wind Farms Implementation” including detailed
modelling of the performance of offshore wind turbines and the floating support
structures.
Chapter 10, Göran Dalén
Göran Dalén received his M.Sc degree in Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering at Chalmers University of Technology in Gothenburg, Sweden
in 1978. He has worked with Wind Energy for many years for the manufacturing
industry as well as for developers and utilities such as Vattenfall and E.ON.
He has also been involved in various EU projects including the coordination
of the R&D part of the Downvind project. He has also been the Swedish
head delegate in IEC TC 88 and representative in different steering committees
for the Swedish Energy Board as well as for different working groups within
the European commission such as the Technology Platform for Offshore Wind
Energy. He is currently working for wpd Scandinavia as a project manager developing
offshore projects in Germany and other European countries.
Chapter 11 Christian Nath, Axel Andraea, Kimon Argyriadis,
Peter Dalhoff, Silke Schwartz,
Christian Nath received his degree as a Diplom-Ingenieur for Naval Architecture
from the Technical University of Hannover in Germany in 1976. Upon his graduation,
he received a research fellowship for a year at the University of California
in Berkeley, where he worked as a Visiting Scholar in nonlinear Finite Element
Analysis. After his return, he worked for Germanischer Lloyd in the structural
analysis group. The time at GL was interrupted by a two-year research project
with employment at the University of Hamburg. In the early eighties, he worked
in the approval of wind energy as a structural engineer. From 1989-1992 he
was project manager of a project of the Federal Research Ministry to install
a test site for wind turbines in China. Since 1993 he was been responsible
for wind energy at Germanischer Lloyd. He is now Global Head of Practice for
Certification and Inspection within the Renewables Segment. Also from 1993,
he has been chair of the German Wind Turbine Standardisation Committee and
was member in several Working Groups of the IEC. He has contributed to several
national and international research projects and is currently a member of
the Executive Committee of the European Technology Platform TP Wind. His first
offshore wind involvement was in the “Study on Offshore Wind Energy in
the EG” carried out by Germanischer Lloyd and Garrad Hassan.
Axel Andreä received his degree as a Dipl.-Ing. from the University of
Applied Sciences in Hamburg in 1989. He worked in the field of measurements
at Windtest-Kaiser-Wilhelm-Koog GmbH for two years. After that he was engaged
at aerodyn Energiesysteme GmbH and worked in load analysis, component and
tower design. In 1995, he joined Germanischer Lloyd’s Wind Energy Department
where he stayed until 2008. The time at GL was interrupted by a one-year-leave
for REpower Systems AG. At GL he held the position of the Head of the Department
for Load Assumptions. He left GL in 2008 to work for support projects in developing
countries in Southern America.
Kimon Argyriadis has a Naval Architect Degree (Dipl. Ing.) from Hamburg University.
After a period in marine engineering consultancy, he joined Germanischer Lloyd
(GL) in 1994. His field of activities covers load analysis for onshore and
offshore wind turbines, and he is responsible for ocean-energy device certification.
He is Expert-in-Charge for load assumptions and is involved in software and
guideline development. He participates in national and international standardisation
and is member of IEC Technical Committee 114 “marine energy”, and
Working Group 3, developing offshore wind turbine standard IEC61400-3. He
has contributed to several national and international research projects and
is currently a member of the European Technology Platform TP Wind.and the
International Ship and Offshore Structures Congress (ISSC) specialist committee
“Ocean wave and wind energy utilisation”.
Peter Dalhoff is Head of the Projects Department, Business Segment Wind Energy,
at Germanischer Lloyd. His involvement in wind energy began as a mechanical
engineer in 1996 with GL. He performed design reviews and on-site inspections
on wind turbines focusing on machinery and drive trains. As a project manager
Peter Dalhoff was responsible for certification projects of different turbine
manufacturers and wind farm developers. Since 2000, he has been engaged in
Offshore Wind Energy and has led several offshore wind related projects, including
project certifications, development and maintenance of offshore wind standards
and participation in international research projects. He has been a team member
in a number of technical due diligence processes as a technical advisor on
behalf of banks and investors. He has organised wind related seminars and
is a funding member of the Hamburg Offshore Wind conference (HOW), being responsible
for its organisation.
Silke Schwartz has a degree in Naval Architecture from the technical University
in Hamburg. Her engineering experience with Germanischer Lloyd had earned
her a position as Expert-in-Charge for load assumptions for onshore and offshore
wind turbines from January 2001, and Deputy Head of the load assumption department
from 2004. She has worked with developing guidelines for load assumptions,
research of ocean energy concepts and supervision of final thesis and performance
of research concerning offshore loads. Since 2006, she has worked in Australia
for Hydro Tasmania Consulting, a leading consultancy in the renewable energy
sector.
Chapter 13 Lorenzo Battisti.
Lorenzo Battisti is currently Fluid-Machinery Associate Professor by the Mechanical
and Structural Engineering Department, University of Trento, Italy and Head
of the Turbomachinery Laboratory. He graduated in Mechanical Engineering in
1988 and post-graduated- at the von Karman Institute of Bruxelles- Belgium
following the 40th (AGARD-NATO) Postgraduate Diploma – option Turbomachnery.
The scientific activity is focussed on heat transfer in gas turbine and wind
energy conversion, where a wide experimental and numerical activity on high
temperature heat-transfer mechanism in gas turbine components and anti-icing
de-icing systems for wind turbines has been carried out. He was member of
the Technical Option Committee – Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps of
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and co author of the 1998 Protocol,
and member 2005-2007 of the IEA – XIX ANNEX “Wind Energy in Cold
Climate”. Former member of the ETN (European Turbine Network). Lorenzo
Battisti is author of many papers and international patents on gas turbine
cooling and anti-icing systems. (The kind assistance of Alessandra Brighenti
is acknowledged in the final preparation of the text).